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| − | This article discuss how the '''car*.res parameters''' control the performance, handling, aesthetics and other aspects of a Stunts car. The parameters are grouped by function, in order to allow more fluent reading and discussion. A quick reference chart of byte addresses may be found at the [[Car files#Car behaviour (car*.res)|Car files]] article. For a deeper discussion on the inner workings of physical parameters, refer to [[Car model physics]] .
| + | A rlliong stone is worth two in the bush, thanks to this article. |
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| − | ==Preliminary notes==
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| − | === Hexadecimal numbers ===
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| − | In order to properly read and edit the parameter values, you will need to make decimal/hex conversions. Most familiar software calculators are able to perform the conversion as well as the basic operations on hex numbers, so that should not be a problem. If you wish to do the conversions by hand or mentally, remember that hex digits go from 0 to 15 (with letters A...F standing for 10...15), and that each digit to the left is one power of 16 higher (instead of a power of 10 as with decimal numbers). For instance, 17C9h = 1*16^3 + 7*16^2 + 12*16^1 + 9 = 6089 .
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| − | === Car Blaster conventions ===
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| − | Unlike regular hex editors, [[Car Blaster]] defaults to displaying both byte addresses and byte values in decimal values. That can often be an inconvenience, so we will not stick to that convention. On this article, byte addresses will always be quoted as hexadecimal numbers. Byte and parameter values can be quoted both ways depending on the situation, so to make the writing clear an "h" will be appended to all hexadecimal numbers. It is simple to switch between hex and decimal display in Car Blaster - just press 'h' for switching the addresses or 'Shift+h' for switching the values.
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| − | === Parameter types ===
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| − | Unlike Car Blaster interface suggets, the values of the parameters usually do not correspond to a single byte in the CAR*.RES. They may be stored in a few different ways, which we'll refer to as data types. Understanding them is often key to reading the values correctly. A description of them is provided below:
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| − | ==== Integers ====
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| − | The most common and important data type. Integer parameters occupy ''two'' bytes in the file, and they should be read together to form the value in the following way:
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| − | * Pick the byte values ''in hexadecimal'' and append one to the other ''in inverted order'' (second byte comes first). Doing so will give you a four-digit hex number (the technical term for this representation is [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness little endian]).
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| − | ** If the number is 7FFFh (=32767) or smaller, it is the parameter value.
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| − | ** If it is larger than 7FFFh, however, the parameter is not really a very large integer number, but rather a ''negative'' integer stored at a particular way (called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two's_complement two's complement]). To recover the real value, subtract the value you read from the file from 10000h (=65536) and invert the sign of the result.
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| − | * The value thus obtained is the actual parameter value, and can be used as you wish, either in hex or converted to decimal.
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| − | * Two examples: Let's say an integer parameter has byte values of 18 and 2C. Grouping the values in inverted order gives 2C18h, which is smaller than 7FFFh. Therefore, the parameter value is 2C18h = 11288 . Now, another integer parameter might have values of 40 and FC. Grouping gives FC40h, which is larger than 7FFFh. Therefore, the real value is the two's complement, -(10000h - FC40h) = -03C0h = -960 .
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| − | From the above description, it can be inferred that an alternate way of reading the values is to sum, in decimal, the value of the first byte to the second one multiplied by 256 (and then taking the two's complement if the value is greater then 32767). Doing so avoids dealing with hexadecimals, but is far less convenient if you have an hex calculator available. A practical remark is that the second byte changes the parameter value at a rate 256 times faster than the first one. For some parameters, the second byte may thus be though of as the "main" one, and the second one as a "fine adjustment". For other parameters, though, the second parameter defaults to zero, and a change of 256 units may be exaggerate for most useful purposes, and therefore we will be most of the time interested on the first byte. A final remark is that negative integer parameters are usually easy to recognize in Car Blaster through the very large second byte values.
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| − | ==== Unsigned integers ====
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| − | These are the same as integers, except they are always positive, and so you don't need to worry about taking the two's complement for large values. Else, all remarks made above still hold.
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| − | ==== Bytes ====
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| − | While most parameters are 2-byte integers, some are nevertheless stored as single bytes. These are naturally a lot simpler to handle - just read the value directly, either in hex or in decimal. Single byte parameters are always unsigned.
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| − | ==== Pairs and triplets ====
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| − | When there is need to represent the position of a point, pairs and triplets of values are employed. For 2D coordinates, defined over a bitmap, a pair of consecutive values is employed, standing for horizontal (x) and vertical (y) coordinates. For 3D coordinates on the "physical world", triplets are used instead, with values standing for x-y-z (width, height and length) coordinates in that order. The values themselves may be integers or single bytes, depending on each case. Pairs and triplets will be represented on this article by enclosing the values in brackets.
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| − | ==Engine and Transmission==
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| − | ===Torque curve===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Bytes|Bytes]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 61h...C7h (103 bytes)''
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| − | Defining how much acceleration the engine can impart on a car at every given engine speed (rpm), the torque curve is naturally a very important factor in determining performance. Every byte navigated forward corresponds to increments of 128rpm, so that byte 61h covers 0...127rpm; 62h, 128...255rpm and so on. There are 103 bytes in total, and so the engine can deliver power over a range of 13184rpm. The curve works as expected: raising a byte increases linearly acceleration given by the engine at a given rpm. A more peaky torque curve means a narrower range of useful engine speeds - and thus, the driver will have to shift more often.
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| − | ===Idle rpm torque===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Bytes|Byte]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 60h''
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| − | This may be thought as a special point in the torque curve. It overrides a section of the curve at low rpms, in order to better represent the car launch from a standstill. The affected range is 0...2559rpm (the first 20 bytes of the curve) for the 1st gear, and 0...''value of idle rpm'' (described further down the article) for 2nd gear and above.
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| − | ===Number of gears===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Bytes|Byte]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 26h ''
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| − | Self-explanatory. Acceptable values range from 1 to 6. If you plan to add a 6th gear to a car, remember to set all other gearing parameters described further on.
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| − | ===Downshift rpm===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 2Eh/2Fh ''
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| − | This is the downshift rpm point used by the automatic transmission. For optimal performance, it should match the rpm position of the torque curve's peak. ''Observation for all rpm parameters:'' the parameter values gives the actual number of rpm directly, so it does not make much sense to highlight a "main" adjustment byte in this case.
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| − | ===Upshift rpm===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 30h/31h''
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| − | This is the upshift rpm point used by the automatic transmission. For optimal performance, it should match the rpm position of the power curve's peak - remember that, at any given rpm, power = torque * rpm; you may estimate a power curve in arbitrary units from the torque curve that way.
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| − | ===Maximum rpm===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 32h/33h ''
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| − | This parameter is the maximum rpm (the "redline") of the engine. Whenever the engine goes beyond this value, the rpm value will be reduced at the next time step (1/20th of a second) so that it fits again within the limit (such behaviour explains why the rev meter oscillates when the maximum rpm is reached). Naturally, this value should be adjusted whenever the torque curve is extended to higher rpms. A maybe less obvious fact is that, as there is no other limitation to the maximum rpm, this parameter can be set to an arbitrary high value - well beyond the end of the torque curve or even the maximum size of the torque curve if you wish, and all engine speeds (and thus car speeds) made available can be reached by jumping, even if there is no torque available on the rpm range. As a very important consequence, the maximum rpm defines, together with the gear ratios, the overall top speed of the car.
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| − | ===Idle rpm===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 2Ch/2Dh''
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| − | The so-called "idle rpm" modulates the engine behaviour at low rpms. The main function of the parameter is to define up to which rpm value the "idle rpm torque" will be used instead of the regular torque curve for the second gear and above. In addition, the idle rpm sets the "sensory" indicators of the engine speed (rev meter position and engine sound pitch) to a fixed value from zero rpm to its value (since car speed and engine speed are always coupled, the ''actual'' rpm value is not fixed, however). If this value is set higher than the maximum rpm, the car will be unable to move. The values can be made equal, though - that is an useful trick to make a constant-torque engine over an arbitrary range of engine speeds if you don't mind having an useless rev meter and an annoying constant high-pitch engine sound buzzing.
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| − | ===Gear ratios===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Unsigned integers|Unsigned integer]]s ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 36h/37h...40h/41h (6 integers)''
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| − | These parameters set the gear ratios of the car, and are therefore very important ones. 36/37h sets 1st gear, 38h/39h the second one, and so on. The gear ratios are overall values, representing the effects both the gearbox and the final drive gears as well as those of the wheel radius. As it could be expected, a higher value means a shorter ratio, and thus higher acceleration but less final car speed in a certain gear (at any rpm the torque delivered to the wheels is proportional to gear ratio, but wheel speed is inversely proportional). The exact interpretation of the value of is straightforward:
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| − | car_speed_mph = 256*engine_speed_rpm/gear_ratio
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| − | This is by far the most useful equation to know when setting the parameters of a car, as it allows to predict car speeds in downshift/upshift points and real top speeds for each gear as well as finding the torque on each. A realistic car needs of course to have decreasing gear ratios, and for often desirable smoother engine operation a near-exponential decrease would be adequate.
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| − | ==Physics parameters==
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| − | ===Car mass===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 28h/29h''
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| − | This parameter had been variously described over the years as "inverse power amplification" ([[Mark Nailwood]] in Car Blaster) or "aerodynamic resistance" ([[Juha Liukkonen]] / [[Lukas Loehrer]]). Were it an aerodynamic coefficient effect, however, it would affect car more strongly at high speeds. Raising the parameter causes a decrease in acceleration directly proportional to the increment, all gears being equally affected. Therefore, it is best understood as being the car mass. Clearly, it has crucial importance to the car performance. The original Stunts cars have masses ranging from 15 to 55 (in decimal); the second byte defaults to zero and increasing it raises the mass way too fast, so it is usually disregarded. Another very important fact about mass - almost as important as the regular physical effect - is that its value sets the kind of [[Power Gear]] or [[Anti-Power Gear]], if any, that the car will have (see [[Power gear bug]]).
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| − | ===Braking effectiveness===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 2Ah/2Bh''
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| − | As the name says, those addresses tell how powerful the car brakes will be. The effect of the brakes is proportional to the value - any apparent slight deviations from the prediction are in fact effects of aerodynamic resistance. Typical values are close to 0100h (=256), except for racing cars, which may have significantly better brakes. Setting the parameter to ''0000''h will turn them off completely, and thus the car will only be stopped by aero drag and, eventually, grass slowdown. Other parameters, such as mass or grip, have no effect on braking.
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| − | ===Aerodynamic resistance===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 5Eh /5Fh''
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| − | This elusive parameter controls aerodynamic resistance encountered by the car when accelerating down a straight. Aerodynamic drag force increases quadratically with speed (that is, proportional to the square of) up to the point the engine can't produce enough torque to overcome it and the car reaches its top speed. Therefore, increasing aerodynamic resistance will lower the car top speed in a flat straight line (that is, no jumps or [[Power Gear]]), as well as significantly reduce acceleration at high speeds. The parameter value is directly proportional to the drag force. It can be verified that for a given set of values for gear ratio, torque and aero coefficient, the maximum possible speed value will be given by:
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| − | max_speed_mph = sqrt(2*torque*gear_ratio/aero_resistance)
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| − | This relation allows to predict the flat track top speed of a car.
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| − | Aero drag also determines how fast the car will lose speed when the accelerator is not being held. It should, additionally, make the car slow down whenever it reached speeds higher than the flat-track top speed (when landing from a jump, for instance). Due to the same bug which originates powergear, however, this effect is observed, among the original cars, only for the [[Carrera]] (only those with power of 2 mass values work "properly"). This fact has very important consequences for the driving techniques of Stunts cars. Finally, usual values for the aero coefficient are similar in magnitude to those of mass, ranging from 20 to 52 for the original cars.
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| − | ===Grip===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' CAh/CBh''
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| − | This is the primary handling parameter. Higher values make it possible to take corners at higher speeds without skidding, and thus raise cornering speeds as well as lower the risk of loss of control (at the rather small cost of making controlled sliding harder, which sometimes can be an inconvenience in competition racing). A general idea of the magnitude of the parameter may be gained by attempting to drive snake lines on an asphalt track without skidding. With grip at 0100h, the car starts to skid at ~70mph. Raising to 0200h allows one to swerve without skidding almost up to 150mph. The default cars have values ranging from slightly lower than 0100h to slightly higher than 0200h.
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| − | ===Surface grip modifiers===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]]s ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' DCh/DDh...E2h/E3h (4 integers)''
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| − | These values are responsible for modifying the car grip according to the kind of surface it is on. The four integer values correspond to the four kinds of surface of Stunts - asphalt, dirt, ice and grass, in that order. Most cars have these set to 1000h, 0C00h, 0400h and 0800h, and thus asphalt grip = (4/3)*dirt grip = 4*ice grip = 2*grass grip. [[LM-002]], as an off-road car, is a notable exception.
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| − | ===Sliding oversteer and air-sliding===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' DAh/DBh''
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| − | This parameter is set to zero on all original cars. Raising it from the default value has two related effects. First, it will make the car rotate faster as it slides, roughly as if the grip was raised. The other effect is making the "air slides" (the mid-air spinning of car gone airborne) more pronounced - even if the car was not sliding before leaving the ground. Setting it at a too high value will make the car extremely sensitive to direction changes when it leaves the ground, and thus make it largely undriveable.
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| − | ===Wheel coordinates===
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| − | [[image:Carreraabove1.png|144px|right|thumb|Illustration of the wheel coordinates and corresponding bounding box for the [[Carrera]]. The indices give the order in which the coordinates appear (as triplets of integers) in CAR*.RES. The point inside the rectangle is the (0,0) point]]
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Pairs and triplets|Triplet]] of [[#Integers|integers]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' (F8h...FDh)...(10Ah...10Fh) (4 triplets)''
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| − | These values set the physical position of the car wheels. The coordinates are used for the expected purposes - such as reorientating of the car when moving to a different surface and verifying whether it is partly or fully over grass or water - but they also act as a bounding box for collisions against track objects. This fact can be readily verified by noticing cars only actually crash at obstacles when the front wheels hit them. Each of the wheel coordinates is stored as a triplet of integers. The first triplet corresponds to the front/left wheel; the other three stand for the remaining ones, ordered clockwise. As usual, the first value of the triplet is the x (left/right) coordinate, and the third one the z (back/front) one. The second value, which was supposed to be the y (vertical) coordinate, has no actual effect, and is always set to zero. The coordinate values are taken relative to the middle of the car, and both the sum of x coordinates and the sum of y coordinates must be zero - not following this recommendation will result in bugs such as the car moving forward or rotating on its own. Most reasonable cars will have wheels positioned on the vertexes of a rectangle symmetrical about the centre of the car, and thus the values in the four triplets will be:
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| − | -half_width, 0, +half_wheelbase
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| − | +half_width, 0, +half_wheelbase
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| − | +half_width, 0, -half_wheelbase
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| − | -half_width, 0, -half_wheelbase
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| − | On the above, wheelbase is the distance between front and rear wheels/axles, and width is understood as wheel-to-wheel separation, all distances being measured from the centre of the wheels.Finally, the ratio between the physical coordinates for the wheels and the corresponding 3D shape coordinates is 64:1.
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| − | ====Influence of the wheelbase on handling====
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| − | The wheelbase, as defined by the z coordinates of the wheels, has major effects on car behaviour. Shortening a car wheelbase will make it change direction faster, as if the moment of inertia had been reduced. As a consequence, shorter cars will:
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| − | * Have more nimble steering, a fact which not only makes them easier to drive but also allows for higher cornering speeds at the same grip levels - since less steering effort will be needed to turn the car, the risk of skidding will be significantly reduced.
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| − | * Land at shorter distances from jumps, as the car will be pointing down earlier on the flight.
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| − | * Be more sensitive to surface changes, and generally have more twitchy behaviour. A key consequence of that is causing effects such as [[Magic Carpet|magic carpet]]s more likely.
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| − | The unique handling characteristics of [[Audi]] and [[Lancia]] are a consequence of their short length, which gives them much better handling than other slow cars and makes them more prone to random bugs.
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| − | ===Dimensions for car-car collisions===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' [[#Integers|Integer]] ''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' EEh/EFh, F0h/F1h, F2h/F3h and F4h/F5h ''
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| − | These four integers set half-width, height and two half-length values for the car. These are only used for the detection of car-car collisions. Unlike the main set of dimensions, these correspond roughly to the full length and width of the car as given by the car1 3D shape, and the units are the same as the ones on car1. If values are all set to zero, it becomes possible to drive straight through the opponent car, like in Trackmania for instance. Unfortunately, the AI won`t realize that and will still swerve to avoid your car even if it is not necessary to do so. The reason why there are two values for half-length is not well-understood. Their functions are not identical, however - when only F2H/F3h is set to zero, even though it is possible to drive through the opponent's car, the cars still are affected by the presence of each other, and even crashes might happen. Setting F4h/F5h to zero makes the cars completely immaterial.
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| − | If only there were more clveer people like you!
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| − | ==Text data==
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| − | ===Car information===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' Zero-terminated character strings''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 32Eh - ???h ''
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| − | Quoting [http://www.kalpen.de/luke/4dinfo.html#cs Lukas Loehrer] directly:
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| − | <blockquote>''Car information displayed on the 'choose your car' screen. Use ] (5Dh) for linebreaks. The end of this block can not be given by an absolute address. Look for a byte with the value 00h. It is followed by a 4 byte long car id which is again terminated by a 00h.''</blockquote>
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| − | The "4 byte long car id" mentioned above is the abbreviation displayed alongside opponent name in the scoreboard. Car information is most conveniently edited via [[Car Blaster]], which has a specific WYSIWYG interface for dealing with it.
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| − | ===Scoreboard car name===
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| − | '' '''Data type:''' Zero-terminated character string''
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| − | '' '''Address:''' ???h - EOF ''
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| − | The final bytes of the file (after the terminating 00h mentioned above) make up the scoreboard designation of the car. It can be edited via Car Blaster like the other text pieces as well.
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| − | ==Miscellaneous==
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| − | ===File header===
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| − | '' '''Address:''' 00h - 25h''
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| − | The initial bytes of CAR*.RES files consist of a file header, structured just like the ones found in uncompressed graphic files and elsewhere. Essentially, it stores file length, text IDs for different sections of the file and the associated byte offsets. Since that data is actually used by the engine to parse the car data, there is no reason to modify it unless one is hand-editing text data for the car and intends to modify string length - and even in that case, using [[Car Blaster]] and allowing it to perform any necessary adjustment is the recommended option.
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| − | ===Unknown parameters===
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| − | Here is a list of the values on CAR*.RES which have unknown function. After somewhat extensive testing, they displayed no visible effect on the behaviour of the car in saved replays. Most of them are equal for all cars.
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| − | * 027h - single byte next to the number of gears, probably just a padding zero.
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| − | * 034h/035h - strategically located next to the gear ratios. Unused space for a never-implemented reverse gear?
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| − | * 042h/043h - looks like one of the other coordinates of the shifting knob, but has no function.
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| − | * 0C8h/0C9h - set to 00B5h for all cars.
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| − | * 0CCh/0CDh - set to 00EEh for all cars.
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| − | * 0CEh/0CFh - set to 00B8h for all cars.
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| − | * 0D0h/0D1h - set to zero for all cars.
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| − | * 0D2h/0D3h, 0D4h/0D5h, 0D6h/0D7h, 0D8h/0D9h - these form a suspicious-looking series with values 0020h, 0010h, 00C0h and 0008h, equal for all cars.
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| − | * 0E4h/0E5h - set to zero for all cars.
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| − | * 0E6h/0E7h, 0E8h/0E9h, 0EAh/0EBh, 0ECh/0EDh - another series of values, this time 0020h, 00C0h, 0080h and 0040h. The resemblance to the default values of the surface grip modifiers is uncanny.
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| − | * <strike>0F4h/0F5h - located just after the car-car bounding box. The value seems to grow with the half-length defined on the bounding box.</strike> Function found, even if only partially understood.
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| − | ==See Also==
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| − | *[[Car model physics]]
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| − | *[[Car files]]
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| − | [[Category:Modding]]
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| − | [[Category:Driving]]
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